Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain. Glutamate exerts its actions through both ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors. There are eight metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors belonging to the class C G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family. The eight mGlu receptors can be further divided into three groups based on their sequence similarity, pharmacological profiles and transduction mechanisms. The mGlu1 and mGlu5 receptors belong to group I; these receptors are primarily located post-synaptically and couple through the Gq/11 pathway. Group II is comprised of mGlu2 and mGlu3 receptors and group III of mGlu4, mGlu6, mGlu7 and mGlu8 receptors; both group II and group III receptors are located pre-synaptically and primarily couple through Gi/o. The mGlu receptors are composed of three distinct regions; the extracellular (Venus fly-trap domain), transmembrane and intracellular regions. Glutamate binds to the extracellular site. Modulators bind to the transmembrane domains where they can act to enhance (positive allosteric modulators or PAMs) or decrease (negative allosteric modulators or NAMs) the activity of glutamate. The mGlu receptors are involved in the fine tuning of neuronal responses and changes in glutamatergic signalling have been implicated in a wide range of disease processes in humans and other species (e.g. see Yasuhara and Chaki, The Open Medicinal Chemistry Journal, 2010, 4, 20-36). Thus modulating the activity of glutamatergic signalling may be efficacious in the treatment of a variety of neurological and psychiatric disorders.
The present invention relates to modulators of metabotropic glutamate receptors, in particular the mGlu5 receptor. The mGlu5 receptor is abundant throughout the cortex, hippocampus, striatum, caudate nucleus and nucleus accumbens, areas involved in emotion, motivational processes and cognitive function. Compounds that act at the mGlu5 receptor have utility in treating, preventing, ameliorating, controlling or reducing the risk of multiple conditions; those of particular importance include one or more of the following: dementia (including senile dementia and dementia caused by AIDS), pain (including headaches (such as migraine and cluster headaches), inflammatory pain (such as inflammatory tongue pain), visceral pain syndromes (such as painful bladder syndrome), gastro-intestinal pain (including irritable bowel syndrome), itch, fibromyalgia, disorders of the urinary tract (including incontinence, prostatitis, urinary frequency, nocturia, overactive bladder, cystitis, benign prostatic hyperplasia, detrusor hyperreflexia, outlet obstruction, urinary urgency, pelvic hypersensitivity, urge incontinence, urethritis, prostatodynia, idiopathic bladder hypersensitivity), substance-related disorders (including addiction, alcohol abuse, alcohol dependence, alcohol withdrawal, amphetamine dependence, amphetamine withdrawal, cocaine dependence, cocaine withdrawal, opioid dependence, opioid withdrawal), anxiety disorders (including agoraphobia, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorders, social and specific phobias, substance-induced anxiety disorder), eating disorders (including obesity, anorexia and bulimia), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; ADD), deficits and abnormalties in attention and vigilance, executive functions and memory, movement disorders (including Parkinson's disease, levodopa-induced dyskinesias, Tourette's syndrome, Huntington's disease, dystonias, restless leg syndrome, simple tics, complex tics and symptomatic tics, periodic limb movement syndromes), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), multiple sclerosis, schizophrenia, cancer (including melanoma, squamous cell carcinoma and astrocytoma), mood disorders (including major depressive disorder, dysthymia, treatment-resistant depression and bipolar disorders I and II), rare neurological diseases including inherited diseases and developmental disorders (including autistic spectrum disorders [Asperger's syndrome, Rett's syndrome, Pervasive Development Disorder Not Otherwise Specified, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder] and Down's syndrome), fragile X syndrome and other areas of mental retardation, disorders of the gastro-intestinal tract (including gastroesophageal reflux disease, functional dyspepsia, functional heartburn, irritable bowel syndrome, functional bloating, functional diarrhoea, chronic constipation, post-operative ileus), epilepsy, retinopathy, neuroprotection (including Alzheimer's disease, stroke, status epilepticus and head injury), ischemias (including cerebral ischameia especially acute ischemia, ischemic diseases of the eye), muscle spasms (such as local or general spasticity), autoimmune disorders of the nervous system including paraneoplastic syndromes, spinal muscular atrophy, vomiting, skin disorders and any other disorders associated with irregularities of glutamatergic signal transmission.
It has been suggested that the glutamatergic system is a mediator of psychiatric pathology and that, potentially, it is a common pathway for therapeutic action of antidepressant medications (Sanacora et al., Neuropharmacology, 2012, 62, 63-77). The mGlu5 receptor is located on GABAergic interneurones in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex; inhibition of mGlu5 on these neurones may lead to the disinhibition of intermediate interneurones, ultimately resulting in a decrease in glutamatergic transmission (Chaki et al., Neuropharmacology, 2012, 66, 40-52). It has been shown that acute administration of an mGlu5 NAM (GRN-529) is efficacious in reducing depression (decreasing mobility time in tail suspension test and forced swim test), anxiety (by attenuation of stress-induced hyperthermia) and pain (reversal of hyperalgesia due to sciatic nerve ligation) (Hughes et al., Neuropharmacology, 2012, 66, 202-214). mGlu5 modulators may therefore be useful in the treatment of depression, anxiety and other mood disorders and pain.
Activity of mGlu5 antagonists/NAMs as analgesics has been demonstrated in models of inflammatory pain. In the Complete Freund's adjuvant-injected tongue (a model of inflammatory tongue pain) a selective mGlu5 antagonist significantly depressed mechanical allodynia and heat hyperalgesia whilst continuous intrathecal administration of a selective mGlu5 agonist induced allodynia in naive rats (Liu et al., Journal of Neuroinflammation, 2012, 9:258). NAMs and antagonists of the mGlu5 receptor may have efficacy in reducing visceral pain syndromes. For example, in painful bladder syndrome (a type of visceral pain syndrome) the pharmacological activation of mGlu5 receptors in the central nucleus of the amygdala (a critical site for neuromodulation for processing of bladder nociception) has been shown to lead to increase the response to bladder distension that drives bladder pain sensitization (Crock et al., Journal of Neuroscience, 2012, 32, 14217-14226). Glutamate receptors are distributed in pain relay structures with glutamate having a key role in trigeminovascular activation, central sensitization and cortical spreading depression (CSD); areas that are important for migraine and cluster headache pathophysiology (Monteith & Goadsby, Current Treatment Options in Neurology, 2011, 13, 1-14). A specific role of mGlu5 in central sensitisation was demonstrated by the induction of long-term potentiation in the superficial layer of the trigeminal nucleus caudalis by electrical stimulation of the mandibular nerve by the mGlu5 agonist CHPG which was selectively blocked by the mGlu5 NAM MPEP (Liang et al, Pain, 2005, 114, 417-428).
The mGlu5 receptor plays a critical role in behavioural responses to multiple substances of abuse and may therefore have a role in the treatment of substance abuse related disorders. The mGlu5 receptor is located in brain regions thought to participate in reward-related behaviours such as the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. Acute pharmacological antagonism of the mGlu5 receptor has been shown to disrupt the reinforcing properties of, for example, pyschostimulants (e.g. cocaine; Grueter et al., The Journal of Neuroscience, 2008; 28, 9261-9270), alcohol (Blednov and Harris, The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2008, 11, 775-793) and nicotine (Palmatier et al., Neuropsychopharmacology 2008, 33, 2139-2147).
Benzodiazepines are generally regarded as effective anxiolytics but suffer from dose-limiting side effects including sedation, memory impairment and abuse whilst selective-serotonin re-uptake inhibitors suffer from long onset of action. The mGlu5 receptor is expressed in several brain regions associated with anxiety and may play a role in treatment of anxiety disorders. The mGlu5 NAM fenobam was demonstrated to have anxiolytic effects in multiple animal models (stress-induced hyperthermia model, Vogel conflict test, Geller-Seifter conflict test, conditioned emotional response test) (Porter et al., The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2005, 315, 711-721). The mGlu5 NAM fenobam also showed efficacy in phase II trials of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).
Proton spectroscopy has shown an increase in glutamatergic resonance in the right prefrontal cortex and left striatum in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) children compared to healthy controls, with the resonance in the prefrontal cortex correlating with age of onset of ADHD symptoms (MacMaster et al, Biological Psychiatry, 2003, 53, 184-187). Copy number variant association analysis in patients with ADHD have shown variations in the gene encoding the mGlu5 receptor (GRM5) and other glutamatergic signalling pathway genes (Elia et al., Molecular Psychiatry, 2010, 15, 637-646). This suggests that alteration in glutamatergic signalling via mGlu5 antagonism or negative allosteric modulation may be a treatment strategy for ADHD/ADD.
The substantia nigra is a key nucleus in the basal ganglia motor circuit playing a key role in motor function. The mGlu5 receptor is involved in direct excitation of substantia nigra neurones which increase firing frequency and burst-firing activity (Awad et al., Journal of Neuroscience, 2001, 20, 7891-7879). The substantia nigra is the primary site of pathology in a number of movement disorders including Parkinson's disease (PD), Tourette's and Huntington's disease. PD is characterised by the loss of dopamine producing neurones in the substantia nigra. Current treatments for PD include levodopa therapy to counteract the loss of dopamine, although this treatment leads to the development of levodopa-induced dyskinesias (LID). There are two types of dyskinesia, chorea (rapid uncontrolled movements) and dystonia (slow writhing movements). The loss of dopaminergic neurones in the striatum causes an increase in the glutamatergic output from the substantia nigra. Antagonism of the mGlu5 receptor is clinically validated in reducing PD-LID, showing a clinically relevant and significant anti-dyskinetic effect without changing anti-parkisonian effects of dopaminergic therapy and may be useful in the treatment of other movement disorders. Antagonists or negative allosteric modulators of mGlu5 also have the potential to treat anxiety and depression which are high co-morbidities in PD. Studies with the mGlu5 NAM dipraglurant shows efficacy in reversing both chorea and dystonias and dipraglurant is reported to be entering clinical trials as a treatment for other rare dystonias.
In Huntington's disease and Tourette's syndrome there is a decrease in activity in the substantia nigra hence agonists and PAMs of mGlu5 are of interest as therapeutic treatments in these disease settings. In a mouse model of Huntington's disease mGlu5 PAMs were shown to be neuroprotective, protecting striatal neurones from excitotoxic cell death (Dona et al., British Journal of Pharmacology, 2013, 169, 909-921).
Positive allosteric modulators of the mGlu5 receptor may be useful in treatment of positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia, and have been shown to have anti-psychotic effects in rat behavioural models (Kinney et al., The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 2005, 313, 199-206). The mGlu5 receptor synergistically facilitates NMDA receptor function and mGlu5 PAMs are in pre-clinical trials for the treatment of schizophrenia.
The mGlu5 receptor has been implicated in the growth and migration of many types of non-neuronal cancers including squamous cell carcinoma (Park et al., Oncology reports, 2007, 17, 81-87) and melanoma (Choi et al., PNAS, 2011, 108, 15219-15224) and therefore modulators of mGlu5 may play a role in the treatment of cancer.
Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is a monogenic disease that causes reduction in the levels of fragile X mental retardation peptide 1 (Fmrp 1). Fmrp1 works in functional opposition to mGlu5; reduction in Fmrp1 leads to increased mGlu5 signalling. There is good pre-clinical evidence that FXS can be modified by pharmacological intervention; in mouse models (Fmr1 knock-out) symptoms and neuropathology of FXS can be rescued by mGlu5 antagonism (Michalon et al., Neuron, 2012, 74, 49-56) and the mGlu5 negative allosteric modulator (NAM) mavoglurant has been evaluated in phase III clinical trials for the treatment of FXS. FXS is the highest known risk factor for developing autistic spectrum disorders. Under the DSM-IV classification autistic spectrum disorders (ASDs) include autism, Asperger's syndrome, Pervasive Developmental Disorder—Not Otherwise Specified, Rett's syndrome and childhood Disintegrative Disorder. ASDs are characterised by impairments in social interaction, communication and language development and the presence of restricted interests or repetitive behaviours. Hyperactivity in glutamatergic signalling has been implicated in ASDs suggesting mGlu5 antagonism may be therapeutically beneficial for treatment of ASDs.
The most common neurological abnormality in FXS is epilepsy. There is long lasting functional enhancement of group I mGlu receptors in models of epilepsy such as the amygdala-kindled rat (Tang et al., Current Neuropharmacology, 2005, 3, 299-307). mGlu5 receptor negative allosteric modulators have been shown to block seizures in mouse models of epilepsy (Chapman et al., Neuropharmacology, 2000, 39, 1567-1574).
Gastroesophogeal reflux disease (GERD) is frequently caused by transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxation (TLESR), a mechanism thought to be partly regulated by the mGlu5 receptor. A proof-of-concept trial showed a negative allosteric modulator of mGlu5 (ADX10059) had efficacy in the treatment of GERD by significantly decreasing the time with pH<4 throughout a 24 h period and reducing the number and duration of symptomatic reflux episodes (Keywood et al., Gut, 2009, 58, 1192-1199).
Selective blockade of the mGlu5 receptor potently protects cultured cortical neurones against NMDA or β-amyloid toxicity and also against neurodegeneration in in vivo models (Bruno et al., Neuropharmacology 2000, 39, 2223-2230). It is widely accepted that amyloid β contributes to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. The mGlu5 receptor has been shown to be a co-receptor for amyloid β oligomers bound to cellular prion protein to activate the intracellular Fyn kinase (Um et al., Neuron, 2013, 79, 887-902). Activation of the mGlu5 receptor removes the repressive effect of fragile X mental retardation peptide 1 on amyloid precursor protein mRNA translation (a precursor to amyloid β) (Sokol et al., Neurology, 2011, 76, 1344-1352). The amyloid β-mediated impairment of long term potentiation can be attenuated by co-treatment with mGlu5 NAM MPEP (Wang et al., The Journal of Neuroscience, 2004, 24, 3370-3378), suggesting that mGlu5 negative allosteric modulators may play a role in neuroprotection.
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS; also known as motor neurone disease) is a neurological disorder characterised by motor neurone degeneration. Mutations in the superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) enzyme have been linked to familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The mGlu5 NAM MPEP has shown efficacy in a mouse model of ALS (hSOD1G93A) with MPEP delaying disease onset, increasing survival and slowing astrocytic degeneration (Rossi et al., Cell Death Differ. 2008, 15, 1691-1800). An up-regulation of mGlu5 expression is seen in ALS spinal cord compared to control (Aronica et al., Neuroscience, 2001, 105, 509-520).